1. Discovery and Excavation
The IVC was first identified in the 1920s through excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan. These cities revealed advanced urban planning and sophisticated civil engineering.
2. Geography
The civilization extended over a vast area, including:
- Punjab and Sindh regions in Pakistan.
- Parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab in India.
3. Major Sites
- Harappa: Located in Punjab, Pakistan, Harappa was one of the first sites excavated and gave its name to the civilization.
- Mohenjo-Daro: Located in Sindh, Pakistan, it is one of the best-preserved and most extensively studied IVC sites.
- Dholavira: Located in Gujarat, India, it is known for its elaborate water conservation systems.
- Lothal: Also in Gujarat, known for its dockyard, indicating significant maritime trade.
4. Urban Planning
The IVC cities were noted for their advanced urban infrastructure, which included:
- Grid System: Streets laid out in a precise grid pattern.
- Drainage and Sanitation: Sophisticated drainage systems, with individual homes often connected to covered drains.
- Public Baths: The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is a notable example, suggesting the importance of ritual bathing.
- Residential Buildings: Houses were made of baked bricks, often with multiple rooms, wells, and private baths.
5. Economy and Trade
The economy was based on agriculture, trade, and craft production.
- Agriculture: Main crops included wheat, barley, peas, and cotton. Evidence of irrigation and plough use has been found.
- Trade: Extensive trade networks with Mesopotamia (Sumer), Oman, and regions in modern Afghanistan and Iran. Items like beads, pottery, and seals have been found in distant locations.
- Crafts: Skilled in bead-making, metallurgy (copper, bronze), pottery, and seal carving.
6. Script and Seals
- Indus Script: A still undeciphered script found on seals, pottery, and other artifacts. It consists of symbols, some resembling pictographs.
- Seals: Often depicted animals like bulls, elephants, and mythical creatures. They were likely used for trade and administrative purposes.
7. Religion and Society
- Religious Practices: Little is known, but evidence suggests possible worship of a mother goddess, fertility rituals, and animal worship. Some seals depict a figure in a yogic pose, possibly a precursor to later Hindu deities.
- Social Structure: Likely had a complex social hierarchy, though less rigid than contemporaneous civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt.
8. Decline
The decline of the IVC around 1900 BCE remains a subject of research and debate. Possible reasons include:
- Climate Change: Shifts in monsoon patterns leading to droughts.
- Tectonic Activity: Earthquakes altering river courses, notably the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
- Overuse of Land: Soil degradation and deforestation.
9. Legacy
- Cultural Continuity: Some cultural and technological aspects of the IVC influenced subsequent South Asian cultures.
- Rediscovery and Study: The civilization was lost to history until its rediscovery in the early 20th century. Ongoing excavations continue to reveal new insights.
The Indus Valley Civilization remains a crucial part of human history, offering insights into early urbanization, social organization, and cultural development. Despite many discoveries, much about the civilization, particularly its script and social practices, remains enigmatic, providing fertile ground for future research and exploration.
